The vagus nerve somatosensory evoked potential in the intact brain: state-of-evidence and some representative vignettes.

OBJECTIVE: Scalp-recorded evoked potentials elicited by applying afferent electrical stimulation at the tragus region of the human external ear have shown inconsistent results. We aim to disentangle discrepant findings and interpretations, and put forward novel physiological explanations on the origin of the vagus nerve somatosensory evoked potentials (VSEP). METHODS: We systematically search and critically appraise in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scielo databases the scientific reports publishing VSEP findings elicited by afferent electrical stimulation at the tragus region from individuals without brain disorders. Eligible studies published from January 2000 to April 2020 were extracted. The following information was identified from each article: number of participants; age; gender; stimulating/recording and grounding electrodes as well as stimulus side, intensity, duration, frequency, and polarity. Information about physiological parameters and neurobiological variables was also extracted. Representative vignettes with novel scalp responses induced by stimulating the tragus were also included to add support to our conclusions. RESULTS: 140 healthy participants were identified from six selected reports. Mean age ranged from 24.3 to 61.5 years. Stimulating and recording aspects were miscellaneous among studies. Scalp responses marked as the VSEP were recorded in 76% of participants, and showed high variability, low validity and poor reproducibility. Age correlated with response latencies. There were not gender differences in scalp response parameters. Cardiovascular function was unaltered by tragus stimulation. Vignettes showed that the VSEP was scalp muscle responses. CONCLUSION: VSEP did not fulfil evoked potential guidelines. VSEP corresponded to volume conduction propagating from muscles surrounding scalp recording sites.

Territorial and Extraterritorial Trigeminocardiac Reflex: A Review for the Neurosurgeon and a Type IV Reflex Vignette.

The trigeminocardiac reflex (TCR) is a complex and, sometimes, fatal event triggered by overstimulation of the trigeminal nerve (TN) and its territorial and spinal cord branches. We reviewed and compiled for the neurosurgeon key aspects of the TCR that include a novel and straightforward classification, as well as morphophysiology, pathophysiology, neuromonitoring and neuromodulation features. Further, we present intraoperative data from a patient who developed extraterritorial, or type IV, TCR while undergoing a cervical surgery. TCR complexity, severity and unwanted outcomes indicate that this event should not be underestimated or overlooked in the surgical room. Timely TCR recognition in surgical settings is valuable for applying effective intraoperative management to prevent catastrophic outcomes.

Smell status in functional movement disorders: New clues for diagnosis and underlying mechanisms.

OBJECTIVE: Functional movement disorders (FMDs) mimic a range of movements, neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders known to have smell dysfunction, which has been neglected in terms of its application to FMD. We aim to determine the smell status in FMD patients tested by a non-invasive, reliable and validated olfactory test. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We quantitatively assessed in thirty-five FMD patients their smell status and compared it to that of healthy age- and sex-matched controls, and of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). All participants were administered the Brief Smell Identification Test (B-SIT), a standardized short version of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT). The Picture Identification Test (PIT), a visual test analogous in content and form to the UPSIT designed to control for non-olfactory cognitive confounds, was also administered. RESULTS: The B-SIT scores of the FMD patients were higher than those from PD patients [respective means (standard deviations: SDs) = FMD, 9.54 (1.57); PD, 4.64 (1.05), p < 0.01)] but similar to the smell scores from healthy controls [9.97 (1.77), p = 0.35]. Gender, age, time of disease onset, smoking status, and phenotypic expression did not influence the test scores. Fourteen FMD patients who mentioned having olfactory dysfunction before smell testing have their test results within normal range. PIT scores from patients and healthy controls were within normal range. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that FMD patients have normal olfactory function. Olfactory testing may be helpful in identifying and differentiating FMD from other movement, neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases for which smell function is altered.

Chemosensory rehabilitation and malnutrition in the newborn: how far, how close?

Olfaction is critical to the hedonic appreciation of foods, caloric regulation of food intake, quality of life and taste preferences since birth. However, malnutrition in newborns down-regulates chemosensory function. Thus, olfactory measures might be used as early markers of chemosensory dysfunction in malnutrition, and may also be useful in assessing feeding adjustments during nutritional rehabilitation. Olfactory anomalies originated by malnutrition would be reversed by nutritional rehabilitation following flavor-enhancing odorants.

Confiabilidad intraevaluador del cuestionario para limitaciones en la actividad y restricciones en la participación de niños con TDAH / Intra-rater Reliability for the Questionnaire on Activity Limitations and Participation Restrictions of Children With ADHD

Introducción: Los cuestionarios para la evaluación de limitaciones en la actividad y restricciones en la participación de niños con TDAH (CLARP-TDAH) se han desarrollado recientemente en Colombia, basados en las sugerencias hechas por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) desde la Clasificación Internacional del Funcionamiento, la Discapacidad y la Salud (CIF), lo cual permite trascender de la evaluación clínica a una evaluación desde la funcionalidad y el funcionamiento de los niños en su contexto familiar y escolar. En este estudio se determinó el grado de confiabilidad intraevaluador para los cuestionarios CLARP TDAH Padres y Profesores. Métodos: En una muestra no probabilística de 203 niños y niñas colombianos escolarizados y diagnosticados con TDAH, se determinó la confiabilidad intraevaluador a través del índice kappa; los informantes fueron los padres y los profesores. Resultados: Se encontró que la confiabilidad intraevaluador de los dominios del cuestionario CLARP-TDAH para padres obtuvo κ > 0,7, mientras que para los dominios del CLARP-TDAH Profesores resultaron > 0,8. Conclusiones: Los cuestionarios CLARP-TDAH son una herramienta con buen nivel de confiabilidad intraevaluador, lo cual permite realizar una evaluación confiable de las limitaciones en la actividad y las restricciones en la participación para determinar el funcionamiento en los entornos familiar y escolar.

Introduction: Questionnaires for evaluating activity limitations and participation restrictions in children with ADHD (CLARP-TDAH) has recently been developed in Colombia, based on the suggestions made by the WHO from the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), allowing clinical evaluation beyond an evaluation of the functionality and functioning of children in their family and school environments. Previous research with the questionnaire proved useful in the multidisciplinary approach of Colombian children with ADHD. This study determines the level of intra-rater reliability for questionnaires CLARP-TDAH Parents and Teachers. Methods: The study included a non-random sample of 203 Colombian children attending school and diagnosed with ADHD. Intra-rater reliability and the reproducibility of the results was determined using the Kappa index. The informants were parents and teachers. Results: Kappa values >0.7 were obtained for the intra-rater reliability of the questionnaire domains of CLARP-TDAH Parents, while for CLARP-TDAH Teachers domains these values were >0.8. Conclusions: CLARP-TDAH questionnaires are a tool with a good level of intra-rater reliability, which allows a reliable assessment of activity limitations and participation restrictions in order to determine the level of functioning at home and school.

Novel mechanisms underlying inhibitory and facilitatory transcranial magnetic stimulation abnormalities in Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The motor-evoked potential (MEP) induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), its recruitment and the conditioning effects of weak stimuli in Parkinson's disease (PD) have shown contradictory results. The aim of this study is to definitively establish the influences of PD on the TMS-evoked MEP. METHODS: We investigated resting and active motor thresholds, resting and active recruitment curves, and short interval intracortical inhibition (ICI) and facilitation (ICF) in 39 PD patients and 40 age-matched healthy controls. The Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) motor score was used as a clinical measure. RESULTS: MEPs to single pulses were slightly, but significantly, larger in the PD patients at rest, but increased much less than controls with voluntary muscle activation. PD patients also showed clearly and consistently less ICI and ICF by the conditioning pulse. Both ICI and ICF correlated with MEP threshold in healthy subjects, but not in PD patients. None of the TMS measures correlated with the UPDRS. CONCLUSIONS: This study strongly supports the view that PD-related MEPs reflect a disturbed signal-noise ratio of pyramidal neuron responses. Such disturbance may be due to a complex combination of altered presynaptic and surround inhibition that results in unbalanced excitatory/inhibitory input at the brain motor cortex level.

Profound olfactory dysfunction in myasthenia gravis.

In this study we demonstrate that myasthenia gravis, an autoimmune disease strongly identified with deficient acetylcholine receptor transmission at the post-synaptic neuromuscular junction, is accompanied by a profound loss of olfactory function. Twenty-seven MG patients, 27 matched healthy controls, and 11 patients with polymiositis, a disease with peripheral neuromuscular symptoms analogous to myasthenia gravis with no known central nervous system involvement, were tested. All were administered the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT) and the Picture Identification Test (PIT), a test analogous in content and form to the UPSIT designed to control for non-olfactory cognitive confounds. The UPSIT scores of the myasthenia gravis patients were markedly lower than those of the age- and sex-matched normal controls [respective means (SDs) =20.15 (6.40) & 35.67 (4.95); p<0.0001], as well as those of the polymiositis patients who scored slightly below the normal range [33.30 (1.42); p<0.0001]. The latter finding, along with direct monitoring of the inhalation of the patients during testing, implies that the MG-related olfactory deficit is unlikely due to difficulties sniffing, per se. All PIT scores were within or near the normal range, although subtle deficits were apparent in both the MG and PM patients, conceivably reflecting influences of mild cognitive impairment. No relationships between performance on the UPSIT and thymectomy, time since diagnosis, type of treatment regimen, or the presence or absence of serum anti-nicotinic or muscarinic antibodies were apparent. Our findings suggest that MG influences olfactory function to the same degree as observed in a number of neurodegenerative diseases in which central nervous system cholinergic dysfunction has been documented.

WITHDRAWN: Mechanisms Underlying Inhibitory and Facilitatory Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Abnormalities in a Large Sample of Patients with Parkinson's Disease.

This article has been withdrawn at the request of the author(s) and/or editor. The Publisher apologizes for any inconvenience this may cause. The full Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal can be found at http://www.elsevier.com/locate/withdrawalpolicy.

[Neurorehabilitation: from a rigid past to a plastic future]. / Neurorrehabilitación: de un pasado rígido a un futuro plástico.

Since ancient times, several cultures including those from China, Egypt, India and Rome gave rigid solutions to improve physical problems of affected people by several neurological disorders. These measures were applied, at that time, by individuals prepared for doing such task. It evolved throughout the years supported by the discovery and comprehension of the so-called neural plasticity as well as the current evidences that the nervous system is able of remodelating itself even in adult times. It is known today that synaptic modulation is the base of neurorehabilitation improved by use and application of specific protocols to each neurological disorder. Among these, we have to consider not only all of the already known on rehabilitation measures but also on neurorobotic, neurorestauration, neuromodulation, neurostimulation as well as virtual reality, among others interventions. Neurorehabilitation has been able to put together modern science with ancient manual therapies helping to change, in a positive way, the attitude toward people with disabilities in the twenty one century; likewise, it offers new hopes for functional recovery where before was nothing. Further, it gives opportunities to get a better quality of life to affected people and its corresponding families. It is very interesting to know that the modern concepts of neurorehabilitation performed in a multidisciplinary approach are very useful for humans on the Earth and people interested in conquer Space.

Neuroplasticidad, Neuromodulación y Neurorrehabilitación: Tres conceptos distintos y un solo fin verdadero / Neuroplasticity, Neuromodulation and Neurorehabilitation: Three different concepts, one only true goal

El sistema nervioso es un sistema cerrado pero, a la vez, muy dinâmico, que asimila, reorganiza y modifica los mecanismos biológicos, bioquímicos y fisiológicos que posee. Esta capacidad se denomina neuroplasticidad e implica cambios en el tejido neural que incluye regeneración axonal, colateralización, neurogenesis, sinaptogénesis y reorganización funcional, entre otros mecanismos. Dichos mecanismos emplean neurotrasmisores como el N-metil-D-apartato (NMDA), el ácido gama-aminobutirico (GABA), la acetilcolina o la serotonina, involucrados en la potenciación o depresión sinâptica a corto o largo plazo, la cual puede durar horas o días, sostenida por segundos mensajeros como el AMP cíclico, cuyos efectos pueden ser transitorios o permanentes. Estos efectos son la base de la neuromodulación. Esta última genera cambios a largo plazo en la actividad metabólica neuronal y su respuesta a diversos estímulos eléctricos, magnéticos o químicos, empleados en la neurorrehabilitación clínica. Dicha neurorrehabilitación es una intervención necesaria en, al menos, el 75% de los pacientes que han padecido un insulto neural, cuyo fundamento es la recuperación funcional del paciente. Por esto, la responsabilidad de los neurólogos clínicos, los neurocirujanos, los pediatras, los neuropediatras, los ortopedistas, los siquiatras y los cirujanos en general, entre otros profesionales de la salud, debería no solo proveer un diagnóstico y suministrar un tratamiento médico o quirúrgico, sino reorientar al paciente hacia un programa formal de neurorrehabilitación, liderado por especialistas en el área, en el que le ayudaran a alcanzar una apropiada funcionabilidad,una óptima neurorrestauración y una adecuada calidad de vida, incluyendo la de sus correspondientes familias.

The nervous system is a closed system but, at the same time, is very dynamic and able to adapt, reorganize and modify the biological, biochemical and physiological mechanisms that it poses. This ability is called neuroplasticity and implies changes in neural structures such as axonal regeneration, collateralization, neurogenesis, synaptogenesis and functional reorganization, among other mechanisms. These mechanisms involve different neurotransmitters such as N-metil-D-apartate (NMDA), gama-amynobutiric acid (GABA), acetilcholine or serotonine; they are involved in short-term depression and potentiation which may last hours or days, maintained by second messengers such as cyclic AMP; its effects may be transient or permanents, and they are the basis of neuromodulation. This latter concept involves long term changes on the neuronal metabolism and its responses to electrical, magnetic or chemical stimuli are employed for neurorehabilitation. Neurorehabilitation is an intervention that must be applied in, at least, seventy five percent of patients suffering neural injuries being its main goal the functional recovery of patients. Accordingly, clinical neurologist, neurosurgeons, pediatricians, neuropediatricians, orthopedic surgeons, psychiatrists and general surgeons, among other health care professionals should offer not only a diagnosis and its corresponding medical or surgical treatment, but also to reorient patients toward neurorehabilitation programs led by a specialist properly trained in this area. This will help patients to obtain optimal functioning, better neurorestaurative condition and a more appropriate quality of life of patients and their relatives.

Incomplete facial nerve palsy: new lessons from activated orbicularis oculi muscles.

Motor nerve conduction studies (MNCS) and blink reflexes (BR) were done on a 42-year-old female patient who presented with peripheral facial nerve palsy (PFNP); these investigations were done while she had her facial muscles relaxed ("A"), and contracted ("B"). While in the "A" state, MNCS of the facial nerves had prolonged latency and low amplitude and R3 of the blink reflex was absent in the affected side; an early contralateral R1 response was recorded on the unaffected side. In state "B," the third silent period was "prolonged" on the affected side and absent on the unaffected one. This is an illustrative case of a variant of facial nerve palsy in humans.

Evaluación neurofuncional del tallo cerebral. Parte I: Reflejo del parpadeo / Functional neurological evaluation of the brainstem. Part I: the blink reflex

El reflejo de parpadeo es la respuesta neural que se obtiene en el músculo orbicular de los ojos,luego de estimular el nervio trigeminal, bien sea de manera simple o pareada, por medios eléctricos,mecánicos, acústicos, térmicos, químicos o magnéticos; cuando se estimula dicho nervio se obtienentres respuestas llamadas R1, R2 y R3. R1 tiene latencia corta, viaja por fibras A beta y no se habitúa.R2 es de latencia mediana, viaja por fibras A beta o A delta, tiende a habituarse y la modulanestructuras suprasegmentales sensorimotoras. R3 es de latencia larga, se genera al estimular víasmultisinápticas que involucran fibras tipo C, en una ruta compleja ponto-amígdalo-talámico-cerebelar.También se pueden registrar tres períodos silentes cuando el reflejo del parpadeo se obtiene mientrasel individuo hace una contracción voluntaria muscular facial. El estudio funcional de este reflejopermite identificar con certeza si la lesión está en las vías aferentes o en las eferentes o si involucrauna integración anormal sensorimotora debida a trastornos de los sistemas nerviosos central,autonómico o periférico. La ejecución correcta de estos estudios, así como su interpretaciónapropiada, con base en los mecanismos subyacentes de plasticidad neural, son guías para orientarmejor los protocolos de neurorrehabilitación.

The blink reflex is the neural response elicited in the orbicular oculi muscle after single or pairedsupraorbital nerve stimulation, by either electrical, mechanical, acoustic, thermal, chemical ormagnetic stimulation. It is made up of three responses called R1, R2 and R3. R1 is an early responsethat follows A beta fibers, and does not habituate. R2 is a middle-latency response that follows A betaand A delta fibers, tends to habituate and is modulated by sensorimotor suprasegmental structures.R3 is a long-latency response, generated by stimulation of a multisynaptic chain of neurons that involve type C fibers belonging to a complex pontothalamic-amigdalo-cerebellar pathway. It is also possibleto record three silent periods if the blink reflex is obtainedwhile the subject makes a voluntary facial muscle effort.The functional study of this reflex allows to define withcertainty whether the lesion is in afferent or efferentpathways or if it involves an abnormal sensorimotorintegration due to disorders of the central, autonomic orperipheral nervous systems. A correct execution of thesestudies, and their appropriate interpretation, based onthe underlying mechanisms of neural plasticity, will guidetoward better neurorehabilitation protocols.

Neurorrehabilitación: La otra revolución del siglo XXI / Neurorehabilitation: An other revolution of XXIst century

La neurorrehabilitación humana es una disciplina de reciente aparición en el mundo neurocientífi co, la cual busca ayudar a pacientes con lesión neurológica para que puedan recuperar el mejor nivel de sus funciones e independencia, así como a mejorar su calidad de vida física, mental, social y si hubiere lugar, la espiritual. Esta se realiza con la participación de profesionales con diferentes formaciones y enfoques donde debe existir necesariamente, un especialista en neurorrehabilitación; además, deberá contar con la colaboración de los individuos que sean parte del círculo familiar o personal del paciente por tratar. La neurorrehabilitación se fundamenta en la capacidad plástica que tiene el sistema nervioso, ampliamente demostrada en animales de experimentación y de manera más reciente en humanos adultos, quienes se han recuperado aun años después de haber padecido una lesión neural. Así mismo, además del enfoque farmacológico tradicional, esta disciplina se apoya también en terapias no farmacológicas como los injertos celulares, la robótica, la realidad virtual, el biofeedback y más reciente, la estimulación focal de rayos láser, la estimulación magnética y las corrientes directas. Por este motivo, es imperativo que los profesionales de la medicina interna, neurología clínica, neurocirugía, siquiatría, ortopedia y cirugía general, entre otras especialidades biomédicas que se practican en los países en vías de desarrollo, incluyan la neurorrehabilitación como parte fundamental del seguimiento de sus respectivos pacientes. Esto con el fi n de ofrecerles a dichos pacientes una rehabilitación similar a la que existe a la fecha, en los países donde se realizan las investigaciones científi cas sobre los cuales se fundamenta la neurorrehabilitación basada en evidencias.

Functional Neurodissection in the First Episode of Schizophrenia: Time to Do It / Neurodisección funcional en el primer episodio de esquizofrenia: es hora de hacerla

Introduction: Current available knowledge does not delineate the relative contribution of cortical and/or subcortical mechanisms in the development of the various symptoms of schizophrenia. Methods: We propose here to employ a battery of functional neurological studies to be done in the earliest phase of manifest schizophrenia combining transcranial magnetic stimulation and brainstem reflex studies. The proposed battery would examine both cortical and subcortical mechanisms reasonably well-correlated with neurotransmitter abnormalities to differentiate GABAergic, cholinergic, and dopaminergic subgroups of patients and healthy controls. Conclusion: These investigations would lead towards a better neurophysiological subcategorization and could guide towards a more focused pharmacological intervention in early schizophrenia symptoms.

Introducción: El conocimiento actual que tenemos de la esquizofrenia no permite conocer la contribución de los mecanismos corticales o subcorticales que llevan al establecimiento clínico de los diferentes síntomas de la esquizofrenia. Métodos: Se propone emplear una batería de evaluaciones neurológicas funcionales que se deberán hacer en la fase más temprana de la enfermedad, y así combinar la estimulación magnética transcraneal y los refl ejos del tallo cerebral. Esta batería de estudios permitiría investigar el funcionamiento de los mecanismos corticales y subcorticales y su correlación con anormalidades en diferentes neurotransmisores, incluidos los gabaérgicos, los colinérgicos y los dopaminérgicos. Este último hecho llevaría a diferenciar clínicamente los diferentes subgrupos de pacientes y entre estos e individuos normales. Conclusión: Estas evaluaciones llevarían hacia una mejor subcategorización neurofi siológica clínica y guiaría hacia una intervención más efectiva en los estados iniciales de la esquizofrenia.

[Functional neurology of blepharospasm]. / Neurología funcional del blefaroespasmo.

Benign essential blepharospasm is characterized by abnormal repetitive movements of lid closure and spasm of the orbiculari oculi muscles. Modern theories postulate that this movement disorder originates by abnormal processing of afferent information with further disintegration of the sensorimotor neural program at central levels of the nervous system all of which is seen as dystonic movements in genetically susceptible people. Different investigations including neuroimagin, genetic and neurophysiological studies have discovered new findings on what structures are involved and how this abnormal movement is generated. Among these research is noteworthy the study of electrically elicited blink reflex. It consists of three responses called non-nociceptive (R1), nociceptive (R2) and ultranociceptive (R3). Such blink reflexes, mostly the ultranociceptive response (R3), seem to be very useful to understand more deeply the pathophysiology of this focal dystonia, to perform the functional endophenotyping and to do a more appropriate follow-up of this complex neurological problem.

Neurología funcional del blefaroespasmo / Functional neurology of blepharospasm

El blefaroespasmo esencial benigno cursa con movimientos repetitivos anormales del cierre de los párpados y espasmo del músculo orbicular de los ojos. Modernas teorías postulan que este trastorno del movimiento se origina por alteraciones en el procesamiento de la información aferente, con posterior desintegración de dicha información a nivel del programa neural sensorimotor que existe en el sistema nervioso central, que se manifiesta luego como movimiento anormal en los individuos genéticamente susceptibles. Diferentes investigaciones que incluyen estudios imagenológicos, genéticos y neurofisiológicos han proporcionado nuevos hallazgos acerca de las áreas neurales involucradas en esta patología y la forma como se genera este trastorno. Dentro de estas investigaciones sobresale el estudio del reflejo del parpadeo obtenido eléctricamente, el cual consta de tres respuestas llamadas no-nociceptiva (R1), nociceptiva (R2) y ultranociceptiva (R3). Dicho reflejo y, principalmente, la respuesta refleja ultranociceptiva (R3) parece ser muy útil para entender más profundamente la fisiopatología de esta distonía focal y realizar la endofenotipificación funcional y seguimiento en la neuro rehabilitación correspondiente de este complejo problema neurológico.

Benign essential blepharospasm is characterized by abnormal repetitive movements of lid closure and spasm of the orbiculari oculi muscles. Modern theories postulate that this movement disorder originates by abnormal processing of afferent information with further disintegration of the sensorimotor neural program at central levels of the nervous system all of which is seen as dystonic movements in genetically susceptible people. Different investigations including neuroimagin, genetic and neurophysiological studies have discovered new findings on what structures are involved and how this abnormal movement is generated. Among these research is noteworthy the study of electrically elicited blink reflex. It consists of three responses called non-nociceptive (R1), nociceptive (R2) and ultranociceptive (R3). Such blink reflexes, mostly the ultranociceptive response (R3), seem to be very useful to understand more deeply the pathophysiology of this focal dystonia, to perform the functional endophenotyping and to do a more appropriate follow-up of this complex neurological problem.

[Hemiplegia with two Babinski's sign]. / Hemiplejía con dos signos de Babinski.

Neurological signs and symptoms are very important to establish a correct neurological diagnosis. We present here a Colombian female patient, 60 years-old, who had ischaemic stroke in the left cerebral media artery. It produced right hemiplegia, motor aphasia, "central" facial palsy and atrophy of right platysma muscle. This latter finding, described originally by Joseph Babinski as "The Babinski Sign" was observed only two years and seven months after the ictus even when she had, previously, been evaluated by several neurologists. The underdiagnosis of clinical signs like the one described here may lead to erroneous diagnosis that will, ultimately, affect neurorehabilitation measures.